Phage Therapy to Treat Bacterial Infections

Phage Therapy to Treat Bacterial Infections Introduction Bateriophages The word bacteriophage, which is a name for bacterial viruses, means â€Å"eater of bacteria.† These viruses parasitize and kill bacteria. Pioneering work on the genetics of bacteriophages in the middle of the twentieth century formed the foundation of more recent research on tumor-causing viruses and other kinds of animal and plant viruses. In this way bacterial viruses have provided an important model system. A bacteriophage is a bacterial parasite. By itself, a phage can persist, but it cannot replicate except within a bacterial cell. Most phages possess genes encoding a variety of proteins. (Ringo John) Discovery and Significance Bacteriophages, viruses that infect or kill bacteria, were discovered by Frederick W. Twort in England in 1917 independently. Twort observed that bacterial colonies sometimes underwent lysis (dissolved and disappeared) and that this lytic effect could be transmitted from colony to colony. Even high dilutions of material from a lysed colony that had been passed through a bacterial filter could transmit the lytic effect. However, heating the filtrate destroyed its lytic property. From these observations Twort suggested that the lytic agent might be a virus. D’Herelle rediscovered the phenomenon in 1917 (hence the term Twort –d’Herelle phenomenon) and coined the word bacteriophge, which means â€Å"bacteria eater.† He considered the filterable agent to be an invisible microbe- for example, a virus- that was parasitic for bacteria. (Pelczar) Since the bacterial hosts of phages are easily cultivated under controlled conditions, demanding relatively little in terms of time, labor, and space compared with the maintenance of plant and animal hosts, bacteriophages have received considerable attention in viral research. Furthermore, since bacteriophages are the smallest and simplest biological entities known which are capable of self replication, they have been widely used in genetic research. Much has been learned about host parasite relationship from these studies, which have provided a better understanding of plant and animal infections with viral pathogens. Thus the bacterium-bacteriophage interaction has become the model system for the study of viral pathogenicity. (Pelczar) General characteristics Bacterial viruses are widely distributed in nature. Phages exists for most, if not all, bacteria. With the proper techniques these phages can be isoalated quit easily in the laboratory. Bacteriophages, like all viruses, are composed of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein coat. Bacterial viruses occurring different shapes, although many have a tail through which they inoculate the host cell with viral nucleic acid. There are two main types of bacterial viruses: lytic, or virulent, and temperate or avirulent. When lytic phages infect cells, the cells respond by producing large numbers of new viruses. That is, at the end of the incubation period the host cell bursts or lyses, releasing new phages to infect other host cells. This is called a lytic cycle. In the temperate type of infection, the result is not so readily apparent. The viral nucleic acid is carried and replicated in the host bacterial cells from one generation to another without any cell lysis. However, temperate phages may spontaneously become virulent at some subsequent generation and lyse the host cells. In addition, there are some filamentous phages which simply â€Å"leak† out of cells without killing them. Types of Bacteriophages There are two types of bacteriophages. Virulent phages and Temperate phages Virulent phages :- As a result of reproduction, virulent phages destroy their host. For example :- T pahges or T1-T7 group of phages infect E.coli bacteria. Temperate Phages :- temperate phages do not kill their host and take over its machinery. For example :- Lambda phage (Study.com) Fig -1 Fates of Phages Morphology and Structure The electron microscope has made it possible to determine the structural characteristics of bacterial viruses. All phages have a nucleic acid core covered by a protein coat, or capsid. The capsid is made up of microbiological subunits called capsomeres. The capsomere consists of a number of protein subunits or molecules called protomers. Figure 1 shows the fine structure and anatomy of a common morphological form of the bacteriophage, one with a head and a tail. Fig. 2 Diagrammatic representation of coliphage Bacterial viruses may be grouped into six morphological types This type has a hexagonal head, a rigid tail with a contractile sheath, and tail fibers. This type has a hexagonal head similar to A. However, it lacks a contractile sheath, its tail is flexible, and it may or may not have tail fibers. This type is characterized by a hexagonal head and a tail shorter than the head. The tail has no contractile sheath and may or may not have tail fibers. This type has a head made up of large capsomeres, but has no tail. This type has a head made up of small capsomeres, but has no tail. This type is filamentous. Types A, B, and C Show a morphology unique to bacteriophages. The morphological types in groups D and E are found in plant and animal viruses as well. The filamentous form of group F is found in some plant viruses. Fig – 3 Types of Bacteriophages Phage Structure Most phages occur in one of two structural forms, having either cubic or helical symmetry. In overall appearance, cubic phages are regular solids or, more specifically, polyhedral; helical phages are rod-shaped. Polyhedral phages are icosahedral in shape. (The icosahedrons is a regular polyhedron with 20 triangular facets and 12 vertices.) This means that the capsid has 20 facets, each of which is an equilateral triangle; these facets come together to form the 12 corners. In the simplest capsid, there is a capsomere at each of the 12 vertices; this capsomere, which is surrounded by five other capsomeres, is termed as a penton. For example, the φX174 exhibits the simple capsid. In larger and more complex capsids, the triangular facets are subdivided into a progressively larger number of equilateral triangles. Thus a capsid maybe composed of capsomeres but it is still based on the simple icosahedrons model. The elongated heads of some tailed phages are derivatives of the icosahedrons. For example the head of the T2 and T4 phages is an icosahedron elongated by one or two extra bands of hexons. Rod-shaped viruses have their capsomeres arranged helically and not in stacked rings. An example is the Bacteriophages M13. Some bacteriophages, such as the T-even coliphages (T2, T4 and T6), have very complex structures, including a head and a tail. They are said to have binal symmetry because each virion has both an icosahedral head and a hollow helical tail. Phage Nucleic Acids Different morphological types of phages are also characterized by having different nucleic acid types. All tailed phages contain double-stranded DNA. The phages with large capsomeres and the filamentous ones have single-stranded DNA. Group E phages have single-stranded RNA. The DNAs of phages are circular under certain conditions. The DNA of phage φX174 is circular both in the virion and in the host cell. The DNA of phage lambda is linear in the virion, but on entering the host cell the cohesive ends join to form a circle. Infection of bacteria by phages Most bacteria are susceptible to attack by bacteriophages. A phage consists of a nucleic acid â€Å"chromosome† (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a coat of protein molecules. Phage types are identified not by species names but by symbols – for example, phageT4, phage lambda, and so forth. During infection, phage attaches to a bacterium and injects its genetic material into the bacterial cytoplasm. The phage genetic information then takes over the machinery of the bacterial cell by turning off the synthesis of bacterial components and redirecting the bacterial synthetic machinery to make phage components. Newly made phage heads are individually stuffed with replicates of the phage chromosome. Ultimately, many phage descendants are made and are released when the bacterial cell wall breaks open. This breaking open process is called lysis. The population of phage progeny is called the phage lysate. Commercial production of Phages In D’Herelle’s laboratory against various bacterial infections five phage preparations were produced. That phage preparations are Bacte-coli-phage, Bacte-rhino-phage, Bacte-intesti phage, Bacte-pyo-phage and Bacte-staphy phage. In the United States therapeutic phages were also produced. Seven phage product for human use produced by the Eli Lilly company in the 1940s including preparations against Staphylococci, Sreptococci, E.coli, and other bacterial pathogen. These preparations contains phage-lysed, bacteriologically sterile broth cultures of the targeted bacteria. These preparations were used against various infections including wounds, vaginitis, acute and chronic infections of the upper respiratory tract, abscesses and mastoid infections. In most of the Western World commercial production of therapeutic phages ceased because of controversy. But in Eastern Europe and in the former Soviet Union the use of phages continued therapeutically together with or instead of antibiotics. (Sulakvelidze.,et.al,2001) Phage therapy Pharmacokinetics Pharmacology is the study of drug’s impact on the body and body’s impact on the drugs. These two concepts are known as pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. In the concept of body, while considering anti microbial as drugs which includes both normal body tissues and the numerous symbiotic micro-organisms. Here we consider only pharmacokinetic aspect of phage therapy pharmacology. Pharmacokinectics describes drug’s potential that are sufficient to achieve primary pharmacodynamic effects. This description is distinguished into absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion components. Drug movement into the blood is absorption, drug movement into other body tissues is distribution, modification of drugs within the body is metabolism, and movement of drugs out of the body is excretion. These four pharmacokinetic aspects have the effect of both reducing and increasing drug densities. In the case of absorption and distribution, drug densities declines due to drug dilution and at the same time drug density increases in specific body compartments. Metabolism results phage inactivation due to phage interaction with immune systems or â€Å"activation† such as phage in situ replication. Excretion can reduce of drug densities in the body, it can also increased drug densities in bladder with therapeutic benefits. The success of phage therapy depends on generation of sufficient phage densities in the vicinity of the target bacteria to cause bacterial removal from the body at some adequate rate. Sufficient densities of phage will increase either to in situ replication which is a active treatment, or a consequence of what can be described as pharmacologically conventional dosing, is called passive treatment. (Abedon et al,2011) Potential benefits Phage therapy offers a possible alternative to conventional antibiotic treatments for bacterial infections. Phages are very specific to target one or a few strains of bacteria. Traditional antibiotics kill both harmful bacteria and useful bacteria such as those facilitating food digestion. The specificity of phages might reduce the chance that useful bacteria are killed when fighting on infection. Phages have ability to travel to a required site including brain. (Wikipedia.org) Phages are natural antimicrobial agents to fight bacterial infections in humans, in animals or in crops of agricultural importance. Phages have hygiene measure in hospitals and in food production facilities. (Brussow Harald) Alternatives to antibiotics Phage is a viable alternative to antibiotics. The collapse of antibiotics and emergence of harmful and drug resistant bacteria, phage therapy starts again and is being reintroduced. Phage therapy has many potential applications in human medicine, veterinary science and agriculture. Specificity – Phages are more specific than antibiotics, means one phage will only attack and eat one particular bacteria and no other. Each infection needs a particular phage to treat it. To improve the chances of success phage mixtures are applied or samples can be taken and an appropriate phage identified and grown. Phages can be chosen to be indirectly harmless not only to the host organism, but also to other beneficial bacteria, such as gut flora, thus reduce the chances of infections. Phage therapy give rise to few side effects. Phages replicates inside the patient, a smaller effective dose may not even be necessary. Currently phages are used therapeutically to treat bacterial infections that do not respond to conventional antibiotics particularly in Russia and Georgia. (Prof. Kieth) Need to study Phages As we saw research on phages and a lack of knowledge on phage biology affects on clinical failure. The emergence of antibiotics wiped out further research on medical use of phages. After many years, a new problem of bacterial resistance to use of antibiotic has arisen. Bacteria become resistant to drug used in modern medicine by adapting themselves. Problems created in treating patients in hospitals due to the emergence of modified pathogens such as S.aureus, P. aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Time required to produce new antibiotic is much larger than the time of bacterial adaptation. Therapeutic Uses of Phages and Antibiotics Conclusion For phage therapy multidrug resistant bacteria have opened a second window. (Carlton,1999) Phage therapy is the therapeutic use of lytic phages to treat bacterial infections. It is an alternative to antibiotics developed for clinical use. Phages are more specific than antibiotics that are in clinical use. This therapy is harmless to eukaryotic hosts undergoing therapy and should not affect normal beneficial flora of the host. Theoretically a single small dose is effective. Specificity is the disadvantage because specific phage will only kill a bacterium if it is a match to the specific subspecies. Thus, to improve the chances of success, phage mixture may be applied or clinical samples can be taken and suitable phage identified and grown. In the country of Georgia phages are used to treat bacterial infections therapeutically. (Todar Kenneth)

gender moments Essay -- essays research papers

â€Å"He throws like a girl!† This insult is heard all too often and is harsh to boys because of the perception of girls being weak. We are constantly bombarded with moments emphasizing gender in everyday situations. After training myself to see these differences my eyes have been opened to something I have previously believed â€Å"natural† and allowed a new perspective to push through. I see attitudes and behavior now as socially constructed and not usually inherent. In R. W. Connel’s book Gender, he defines gender as â€Å"the structure of social relationship that centers on the reproductive arena, and the set of practices that bring reproductive distinctions between bodies into social processes† (pg 10). I have found that gender is an institution, a pattern that has attained a social state. Gender is unique in that it is meshed with many other institutions, thus changing gender, it would mean changing much of society. I chose to focus my paper on the different institutions gender is a part of, in education throughout development, relationships, religion, and politics. Although I have only touched the surface, I believe that gender is an institution; an order or pattern that has attained a social state or property. Education is a potent institution used to reinforce gender differences. In our reading we found that children are much more likely to separate themselves at school in gender categories than in their neighborhoods. As Barrie Thorne points out in her book Gender Play, â€Å"Apart from age, of all the social categories of the students, gender was the most formally, and informally, highlighted in the course of each school day† (pg 34). I feel that many experiences in elementary school have reinforced my gender outlook. I spent much of my time in elementary school racing the boys and biting my nails to show I wasn’t scared to â€Å"break a nail† and never wearing a dress. Recess was a fight for me half the time. I didn’t like the connotation of being called a â€Å"girl.† Now I realize that I was trying to oppose the gender role I was expected to perform, yet eventually I grew out of that â€Å"phase† of fighting against the norm and joined the ra nks of the girls. I moved from the field, to the bars and jump rope. I see now that the change I went through was just giving in to the reinforcement around me to be feminine. Instead of fighting against the grain, I chose the easy road by... ...ibed in the article, Gender and New Institutionalism Cornwall and King define institutions as possessing â€Å"1. Classification 2. Institutionalized logics and 3. Diffusion, legitimization, and taken for grantedness.† After reading this, I found all the characteristics in my gender moments. Although individuals act on a personal basis, their acts collectively fit societies pre-determined standard and mold. I see much of individuality as either conforming to decisions already made or trying to push against the mold. Men and women are different, but not as different as society would like to assume. Gender is intertwined in many of society’s institutions-education, religion, relationships, and politics- and because it is tangled up in all, it is very hard to change gender as an institution. It is very likely to be reinforced beginning in childhood; from children, adults, and peers. Because of the reinforcement, it is reproduced from parents to children and conforming is the easiest way to go through society. Change happens very slowly and although there is change from my grandmother’s experience to my own, I see the change as not very fluid- instead of water it’s more like heavy mud.

Antiphishing

Name: B. sreevidya Rno: 08491D5804 FINDIND & STOPING OF PHISHING ATTACKS THROUGH ONLINE ABSTRACT: Phishing is a new type of network attack where the attacker creates accurate copy of an existing web page to fool users ex submitting personal, financial, or password data to what they think is their service provider’s website. The concept is an anti-phishing algorithm, called the Link Guard, by utilizing the generic characteristics of the hyperlinks in phishing attacks. The link Guard algorithm is the concept for finding the phishing emails sent by the phisher to grasp the information of the end user.Link Guard is based on the careful analysis of the characteristics of phishing hyperlinks. Each end user is implemented with Link Guard algorithm. Existing System: 1) Detect and block the phishing Web sites in time: If we can detect the phishing Web sites in time, we then can block the sites and prevent phishing attacks. But it's difficult to find those phishing sites out in time . There are two methods for phishing site detection. a) The Web master of a legal Web site periodically scans the root DNS for suspicious sites. ) Since the phisher must duplicate the content of the target site, he must use tools to (automatically) download the Web pages from the target site. It is therefore possible to detect this kind of download at the Web server and trace back to the phisher. Drawbacks:-Many phishing attacks simply do not require a DNS name. For phishing download detection, clever phishers may easily write tools 2) Enhance the security of the web sites: The business Websites such as the Web sites of banks can take new methods to guarantee the security of users' personal information.There two method to enhance the security a) Using hardware devices: For example, a hand-held card reader b)Biometrics characteristic: e. g. voice, fingerprint, iris, etc. Drawbacks:-All these techniques need additional hardware and also will increase the cost. Therefore, it still need s time for these techniques to be widely adopted. Block the phishing e-mails by various spam filters: The phishers hide their identities when sending the spoofed e-mails, therefore, if anti-spam systems can determine whether an e-mail is sent by the announced sender the phishing attacks will be decreased dramatically.The techniques that preventing senders from counterfeiting their Send ID (e. g. SIDF of Microsoft) can defeat phishing attacks efficiently. SIDF is a combination of Microsoft's Caller ID for E-mail and the SPF (Sender Policy Framework). Both Caller ID and SPF check e-mail sender's domain name to verify if the e-mail is sent from a server that is authorized to send e-mails of that domain and from that to determine whether that e-mail use spoofed e-mail address. If it's faked, the Internet service provider can then determine that e-mail is a spam e-mail.The spoofed e-mails used by phishers are one type of spam e-mails. the spam filters can also be used to filter those phi shing e-mails. Spam filters are designed for general spam e-mails and may not very suitable for filtering phishing e-mails since they generally do not consider the specific characteristics of phishing attacks. 4) Install online anti-phishing software in user’s computers: Despite all the above efforts, it is still possible for the users to visit the spoofed Web sites. As a last defense, users can install anti-phishing tools in their computers.The anti-phishing tools in use today can be divided into two categories: blacklist/white list based and rule-based. a) When a user visits a Web site, the antiphishing tool searches the address of that site in a blacklist stored in the database. If the visited site is on the list, the anti-phishing tool then warns the users . They cannot prevent the attacks from the newly emerged (unknown) phishing sites. b) Uses certain rules in their software, and checks the security of a Web site according to these rules.Examples Spoof Guard and Trust W atch provide a toolbar in the browsers all the above defense methods are useful and complementary to each other, but none of them are perfect at the current stage. PROPOSED SYSTEM A. Classification of the hyperlinks in the phishing e-mails The hyperlinks used in the phishing e-mail into the following categories: 1) The hyperlink provides DNS domain names in the anchor text, but the destination DNS name in the visible link doesn't match that in the actual link. For instance, the following hyperlink: <a href= â€Å"http://www. profusenet. et/checksession. php†>https://secure. regionset. com/EBanking/logon/ </a> appears to be linked to secure. regionset. com, which is the portal of a bank, but it actually is linked to a phishing site www. profusenet. net. 2) Dotted decimal IP address is used directly in the URI or the anchor text instead of DNS name. For example. <a href= â€Å"http://61. 129. 33. 105/secured-site/www. skyfi. Com/ index. html? MfclSAPICommand=Sig nInFPP&UsingSSL= 1†³> SIGN IN </a> 3) The hyperlink is counterfeited maliciously by using certain encoding schemes.There are two cases: a) The link is formed by encoding alphabets into their corresponding ASCII codes. See below for such a hyperlink. <a href=†http://034%02E%0333%34%2E%311%39%355%2E%o340o31:%34%39%30%33/%6C/%69%6E%64%65%78%2E%68%74%6D†> www. citibank. com </a> While this link is seemed pointed www. citibank. com, it actually points to http://4. 34. 195. 41:34/l/index. htm. b) Special characters (e. g. (in the visible link) are used to fool the user to believe that the e-mail is from a trusted sender.For instance, the following link seems is linked to amazons, but it actually is linked to IP address 69. 10. 142. 34. http://www. amazon. com:[email  protected] 10. 142. 34. 4) The hyperlink does not provide destination information in its anchor text and uses DNS names in its URI. The DNS name in the URI usually is similar with a famous company or organization. For instance, the following link seems to be sent from PayPal, but it actually is not. Since paypal-cgi is actually registered by the phisher to let the users believe that it has something to do with paypal <a href= â€Å"http://www. aypal-cgi. us/webscr. php? Cmd=Login†> Click here to confirm your account </a> 5) The attackers utilize the vulnerabilities of the target Web site to redirect users to their phishing sites or to launch CSS (cross site scripting) attacks. For example, the following link <a href=†http://usa. visa. com/track/dyredirjsp? rDirl=http://200. 251. 251. 10/. verified/†> Click here <a> Once clicked, will redirect the user to the phishing site 200. 251. 251. 10 due to a vulnerability of usa. visa. com. B. LINK GUARD ALGORITHM:LinkGuard works by analyzing the differences between the visual link and the actual link. It also calculates the similarities of a URI with a known trusted site C. LI NK GUARD IMPLEMENTED CLIENT: It includes two parts: a whook. dll dynamic library and a LinkGuard executive. Whook is a dynamic link library; it is dynamically loaded into the address spaces of the executing processes by the operating system. Whook is responsible for collecting data, such as the called links and visual links, the user input URLs. LinkGuard is the key component of the implementation.It’s composed of 5 parts Comm: This collects the information of the input process, and sends these related information’s to the Analyzer. Database: Store the white list, blacklist, and the user input URLs. Analyzer: It is the key component of Link Guard, which implements the Link Guard algorithm; it uses data provided by Comm and Database, and sends the results to the Alert and Logger modules. Alerter: When receiving a warning message from Analyzer, it shows the related information to alert the users and send back the reactions of the user back to the Analyzer.Logger: Archive the history information, such as user events, alert information, for future use. Software And Hardware Specification HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS * Hard disk:20 GB and above * RAM:256 MB and above * Processor speed: 1. 6 GHz and above SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS * Operating System: Windows 2000/XP * Documentation Tool:Ms word 2000 * Technology used : jsp,servlets,Apache Tomact 5. 5 * Database : Oracle XE

Does Social Inequality Exist in Jamaica - 3694 Words

Introduction â€Å"Social Inequality allows for the exclusion of individuals and the formation of prejudices and discrimination. Carefully analyze and discuss the validity of this statement based on current events in the Jamaican society.† Social Inequality is the existence of socially created inequalities; it occurs when ideology and power combine to make one group of people feel inferior to another. From a sociological perspective people are able to assess both opportunities and constraints that characterize their lives as it relates to age, sex, gender, race and class and based on this, many ills that the world faces today are derived from some person’s blatant disregard for differences. A prejudice is a preconceived belief toward a†¦show more content†¦It also means a priori beliefs (without knowledge of the facts) and includes any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence. Although positive and negative prejudice both exist, when used negatively, prejudice implies fear and antipathy toward such a group or person. †¢ Cognitive Prejudice refers to what people believe to be true: for example, in adherence to a particular metaphysical or methodological philosophy at the expense of other philosophies which may offer a more complete theoretical explanation. †¢ Affective Prejudice refers to what people like and dislike: for example, in attitudes toward members of particular classes such as race, ethnicity, national origin, or creed. †¢ Conative Prejudice refers to how people are inclined to behave. It is regarded as an attitude because people do not act on their feelings. An example of conative prejudice may be found in expressions of what should be done if the opportunity presents itself. These three types of prejudice are correlated, but all need not be present in a particular individual. Someone may believe that a particular group possesses low levels of intelligence, but harbor no ill feeling towards that group. A group may be disliked because of intense competition for jobs, but still recognize no differencesShow MoreRelatedAnalysis of Jamaica Kincaids Lucy and Edwidge Danticats The Farming of Bones1744 Words   |  7 PagesDanticat and Kincaid Every single culture is a unique social creation wherein the population of a given location has worked together for years to develop attitudes, perceptions, artistic and aesthetic interests, and ideologies which will be individual to the culture. It will also develop important attitudes about which groups within the cultural community will comprise the majority and which the minority. 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