Free Essays on Rousseau’s Inequality Among Men

Rousseau’s Inequality Among Men Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s â€Å"Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Among Men,† gives a canny method to see the way imbalance a foul play came to fruition and how we ought to react to it. His talk is, pretty much, a study of the implicit agreement as saw by a portion of his constituents. Rousseau concurred with John Locke and Thomas Hobbes on fluctuating thoughts in regards to the condition of nature and the implicit understanding, however his thoughts of an implicit understanding are distinctive from numerous points of view. In this article I will clarify Rousseau’s perspective on human instinct, his thoughts of private property, and how a common society came into place and the effect this had. Rousseau didn't feel that the condition of nature was such characteristic. He questions if there ever even was a condition of nature and if there was, how would we hit it up. He expresses that the ‘Holy Scriptures’ notice the primary man was given edification and statutes quickly from God and Moses never discussed this condition of nature (414). Be that as it may, Rousseau concurs with John Locke that all people are brought into the world free and self-governing. In contrast to Locke, he feels that there is no explanation in the condition of nature and that good or political disparity isn't approved by regular law. Like Hobbes, Rousseau believed that a condition outside of society contains no profound quality. Rousseau felt that excellencies, or characteristic products, existed in the condition of nature and two ideals existed before reason. He felt that self-conservation and sympathy for others were the two regular ethics that existed in the condition of nature. Shockin gly, these temperances are changed as we enter an implicit understanding. As indicated by Rousseau this happens in light of the fact that Human Nature is flexible. Rousseau’s perspective on private property gives a superior glance at how the common society was made. He didn't feel that society was common rather that the effortlessness of the ‘noble-savage’ was wanted to society. ... Free Essays on Rousseau’s Inequality Among Men Free Essays on Rousseau’s Inequality Among Men Rousseau’s Inequality Among Men Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s â€Å"Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Among Men,† gives a shrewd method to see the way disparity a foul play occurred and how we ought to react to it. His talk is, pretty much, an investigate of the implicit understanding as saw by a portion of his constituents. Rousseau concurred with John Locke and Thomas Hobbes on shifting thoughts in regards to the condition of nature and the implicit agreement, however his thoughts of an implicit agreement are diverse from numerous points of view. In this article I will clarify Rousseau’s perspective on human instinct, his thoughts of private property, and how a common society came into place and the effect this had. Rousseau didn't feel that the condition of nature was such common. He questions if there ever even was a condition of nature and if there was, how would we hit it up. He expresses that the ‘Holy Scriptures’ notice the main man was given illumination and statutes promptly from God and Moses never discussed this condition of nature (414). In any case, Rousseau concurs with John Locke that all people are brought into the world free and self-ruling. In contrast to Locke, he feels that there is no explanation in the condition of nature and that good or political disparity isn't approved by characteristic law. Like Hobbes, Rousseau felt that a condition outside of society contains no ethical quality. Rousseau felt that ethics, or normal products, existed in the condition of nature and two excellencies existed preceding explanation. He felt that self-protection and empathy for others were the two normal ideals that existed in the condition of nature. Tragically, these ethics ar e changed as we enter an implicit understanding. As indicated by Rousseau this happens in light of the fact that Human Nature is flexible. Rousseau’s perspective on private property gives a superior glance at how the common society was made. He didn't feel that society was characteristic rather that the straightforwardness of the ‘noble-savage’ was liked to society. ...

Comparison Between the Aeneid and the Iliad free essay sample

How are the sections comparable? How are they extraordinary? What does this likeness/contrast enlighten us regarding a bigger similitudes/contrasts in progress of an entirety? Model from instructor: Aeneid line 404-424 (Dido is down and out) Odyssey: 212-225 (Calypso-Can I be less alluring? ) comparability: both have broken-hearts-the hero is leaving them distinction: Aneid-Rome calls, going to Italy to assemble another home/Dido won't acknowledge his leaving/Dido is just a sovereign and mortal Odyssey: home calls, Ithika (past as of now his home) Calypso acknowledges that he should go/she is a goddess death The Iliad| The Aenied | Passage: The Aeneids last six book (the flare-up of war) looks like the Iliad. | Partoclus slaughtered by Hector and the rage of Achilles is touched off by the updates on the demise of his companion. | Pallas murdered by Turnus and the anger of Aneus is lighted when he likewise gets the updates on her dead companion. We will compose a custom article test on Correlation Between the Aeneid and the Iliad or on the other hand any comparative point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page | Likenesses/Differences| Similarities: * Both Achilles and Aneas share a similar response towards the demise of their individual officers. Iliad pg 430 ll. 25-38Aenied pg 325 * Both Virgil and Homer presentation a similar topic of retribution. Achilles retaliates for Hector for slaughtering Patroclus and Aneus executes Pallas so as to serve retribution for Turnus demise. * Both officers are missing from fight and the news is brought to them. Contrasts: * Both men have various drives Achilles is driven by his pride and self-wonder while Aneus serves the desire of the Gods. * Reason behind the mens nonattendance from the war zone: Achilles: self-hatred and determination for the loss of his war prize along these lines declining to participate in fight. Aneus: doing his destiny given to him by the Gods; looking for additional men for his new armed force. *different characters| Works as a Whole| Homer The Iliad stresses the possibility of hamartia and its ability of demolition with a solid nearness of war. Virgil The Aenied centers around commending the Roman Gods. Both In the two works, the activities of the heroes and rivals are affected by Divine Intervention,

So You Have a Bad Landlord ... Now What - OppLoans

So You Have a Bad Landlord ... Now What - OppLoans So You Have a Bad Landlord Now What? So You Have a Bad Landlord Now What?If your landlord is refusing to make necessary repairs or is holding your security deposit hostage, heres what you need to do.You laughed along with Bad Santa. You were splitting your sides at Bad Teacher. You’ve chuckled at the Bad Moms and Bad Grandpa. Now get ready for the next installment of the Bad Cinematic Universe… [record scratch] Bad Landlord?!Wait a second, that doesn’t sound funny at all! Dealing with a bad landlord is such a pain. Your home is meant to be a sanctuary where you can relax after a tough day, so having a bad landlord can throw your whole life out of whack. It could even end up as a drain on your finances, the kind that leaves you relying on short-term bad credit loans and no credit check loans like payday loans and cash advances to make ends meet.Let’s address a couple of the most common ways that landlords can be bad and some good general strategies you can employ to deal with them. Hopefully, youll soon be back to once enjoying the serenity of your home as you watch Bad Lieutenant on TV.They aren’t making repairs.This is probably one of the most common ways that a landlord will be “bad.” One of the advantages that renting has over owning is that the landlord or management company is obligated to pay for repairs. This advantage goes away if your landlord is not doing that!“The landlord is responsible to make to make repairs in a tenants apartment, the tenant should not make the repairs on their own,” established NYC Tenant Attorney Sam Goldberg. “If there are defective conditions in a tenant’s apartment they should call 311 and schedule an inspection date for an HPD inspector to check the tenant’s apartment for violations.“Once HPD issues a violation, HPD will give the landlord a certain amount of time to repair the violation depending on its violation class. If the landlord still fails to make the repairs, the tenant should bring an HPD proceeding in housing court. The pr oceeding is predicated upon the HPD violation report and the judge will tell the landlord to repair the defective conditions in the tenants apartment. If the landlord fails to make the repairs, the judge could order civil penalties and in some cases, even hold the landlord in contempt of court.”If you do not want to go to court, there are other paths you can take. However, those paths may still end up with you in court, so be prepared.“Some tenants choose to withhold rent when there are defective conditions in their apartment because they want an abatement in their monthly rent,” explained Goldberg. “If a landlord brought a non-payment proceeding against the tenant, one of the tenant’s defenses to the non-payment proceeding would be ‘warranty of habitability.’The tenant can use the HPD violation report to demonstrate that the defective condition existed in their apartment and use the violation report as part of their evidence to get an abatement on rent in the non-paym ent proceeding.”They won’t return your security deposit.You managed to get through your entire lease and you’re finally leaving that bad landlord behind. It’s a dream come true! But that dream can morph into a whole new nightmare very quickly.“Another issue tenants run into is after they vacate their apartment is the landlord fails to return their security deposit,” warned Goldberg. “In NYC the Landlord has 30 days to return a tenant’s security deposit. When a tenant vacates their apartment they should take pictures and videos and make sure that the photos and videos are time stamped.A tenant should do this so if a landlord withholds their security because of alleged damages, they have photographs and videos to argue against the damage claim from the landlord. If the security deposit is below $5,000.00, a tenant can bring a small claims action against their landlord to try to recover their security deposit back after 30 days.”Check that lease!If you do end up in a legal battle with your landlord, knowledge of your lease will be your greatest weapon.“Believe it or not, many people do not take the time to thoroughly read and understand their lease,” advised Ron Humes, VP of Operations Southeast Region for Post Modern Marketing (@PostMM). “This is the document that will govern the landlord-tenant relationship along with actions and consequences. A lease should have a section regarding the process for reporting substantial repairs needed on the property and the timeframe and consequences of the associated resolution.“If a landlord is not responding to needed repairs this may be a valid reason for voiding the lease contract and receiving a return of deposits. Again, read the lease and understand the process. Since the lease represents the mutual and voluntary agreement of the two parties, this document will be critical to the judge and final decision.”Document everything.You already know to take pictures of any damages that were there wh en you moved in. But that’s not all! Keep track of everything, especially your interactions with the landlord.“Try to work out any issues directly with the landlord,” recommended attorney Matthew J. Kidd (@MattKiddLaw). “However, keep a detailed log of your interactions and try to get everything in writing. As frustrating as the situation may be, always be civil and as reasonable as possible when dealing with your landlord. Don’t let this minor civil issue turn into a possible criminal matter.”And stand together.Even with all of this knowledge under your belt, you’re still going into this situation as the underdog. The landlord controls the space where you live, and that’s a lot of leverage! That’s why you should consider working together with others to even the odds.“When at all possible, see if there are others in your building or unit that are experiencing the same or similar problems,” urged real estate professional Chantay Bridges. “There is strength in numbers. There is a difference between a one-person complaint versus fifty.You all should work together and make certain the owner is aware that the tenants are not going to tolerate living in an unhealthy, unsafe environment, whatever the scenario is. Let your voices be heard.”As with most challenges in life, dealing with a bad landlord will be easier with research, preparation, and teamwork! To read more about housing-related financial issues, check out these other posts and articles from OppLoans:How to Decorate Your Home for CheapIs Rent-to-Own a Good Way to Purchase a Home?How You Can DIY Your Way to Cheaper Home MaintenanceHow Much Money Do You Actually Need to Buy a House?Do you have a   personal finance question youd like us to answer? Let us know! You can find us  on  Facebook  and  Twitter.Visit OppLoans on  YouTube  |  Facebook  |  Twitter  |  LinkedIN  |  InstagramContributorsChantay Bridges is Americas leading mogul, who utilizes her gifts and abilities in outreach to her community and world around her. She is an exceptional Realtor, (translation: the one you want to hire), Author, Speaker and a keen philanthropist with a strong business acumen.Samuel E. Goldberg, Esq. is an experienced tenant’s rights attorney and advocate who provides exemplary representation to tenants throughout the NYC area in all courts and governmental agencies.Ron Humes is currently the VP of Operations Southeast Region for  Post Modern Marketing (@PostMM); a full-service digital marketing company. He has been a realtor as well as an owner and principal broker of his own realty company for 20 years. He has been a custom home builder and owner of a remodeling company. He is an active investment property owner of flips and rentals. He has been a Property Manager for 20 years. He trains investors to purchase, flip and rent properties.Matthew J. Kidd (@MattKiddLaw) is an attorney in Boston. Kidd was recognized by Super Lawyer as a 2018 “Rising Star”. Kidd was also awar ded the “Silver Client Champion” award by Martindale-Hubbell and Avvo Clients’ Choice Awards in 2017 and 2018.  Kidd handles a variety of civil issues including bankruptcy, employment, landlord-tenant and personal injury issues in his practice.

Whose Filosophy Made the Most Sense for Merica in the...

Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X grew up in different environments. King was raised in a comfortable middle-class family where education was crucial, and Malcolm X came from a family of low class. He was a self-taught man who received little schooling and became who he is on his own. Martin Luther King was born into a good family. Despite segregation, Martin Luther King s parents tried everything so that he could be secure and happy. He was a smart student and skipped two grades before entering college and passed the enterance exam to Morehouse University at only the age of 15. Malcolm X was was raised in a completely different atmosphere than King, an atmosphere of fear and anger. Becaue of the burning of his house his father died.†¦show more content†¦The speeches of King and X reflected both men s visions on improving America. Both men believed that if blacks were to have freedom they first needed to achieve self-respect. However, Malcolm X s speeches were delivered i n a form which could incite his listeners to hate a white America. Malcolm X used direct and to the point language which could be understood by all levels of society. This creativity in language helped build the Black Muslim Movement in the United States. He encouraged blacks to hate white America and to revolt against them. Martin Luther King was an equally strong speaker but most of his speeches were given to encourage white and black people to work together for racial harmony. He especially wanted to teach black youth that equality could be gained through non-violent methods. These ideals are reflected in his famous I have a dream speech, where King addressed to over 250 000 people. In this speech, King urges black people to never forget their dreams. King preaches that in the eyes of God, the blacks are as good as any other race and should be treated as equals. Unlike Malcolm X, King does not incite his followers to riot and hate, but encourages his followers to remember that a ll people are God s children and that hopefully one day all American can live together and united. Malcolm X and Martin Luther King are both remembered as leaders who fought for a difference in

Religion Is The Oldest Kinds Of Religion Essay - 1399 Words

Religions have been present in this world for thousands of year, providing ancient civilizations answers to their questions and a moral code to abide by. Today, religion still serves a similar purpose and more, forming and changing as time goes on. Though religions today may share some elements, they do share their own opinions and preach of different practices, all of them affect or are affected by the modern world. Two forms of religion are animism versus anthropocentrism. Animism religions are the oldest kinds of religion (though only ten percent of the world currently practice) and maintains the belief that everything has a soul - animals, plants, the elements. Animistic religions view everything as sacred, so the Earth and those who inhabit deserve to be treated with respect. Anthropocentric religions, however, hold a drastically different opinion. While animistic religions view all as sacred, anthropocentric religions, such as Christianity, believe that only humans have a soul, placing them on a pedestal and regarding them as something superior to all other lifeforms. Due to the beliefs of anthropocentric religions, it can be argued that they benefit the capitalist economy. The capitalist economy likes to turn anything and everything into a profit, and by placing humans on a pedestal and viewing everything else as a lesser being, anthropocentric religions allow the exploitation of natural resources without the accompanying guilt of disrespecting a life form. WhileShow MoreRelatedJudaism : Christianity And Christianity1085 Words   |  5 PagesJudaism and Christianity are two of the oldest religions known to man, with both developing out of the country if Israel. One of the biggest differences between the two religions is who Christ was, and his purpose in life. However, they share common ground when it comes to their belief in God and his teachings. In fact, Christianity would not exist without Judaism, as it the foundation that Christianity is based on. Judaism is the first and oldest religion, and because of this Judaism has a directRead MoreNo Religion Teaches Hatred1559 Words   |  7 PagesDoes religion teach to hate any one? Any religion which is truly for God would never teach anyone to hate others. On the contrary it would always teach people to forgive, to be kind and to be fair even to those who are not good to you cannot be for God in any manner....No religion teaches anybody to hate anyone and to fight in the name of religion.The one who truly believes and know the true meaning of their religion will come to know Posted in Agony Aunt by Jay Deep at 9:11 PM on October 27, 2008Read MoreHinduism And Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, And Many Religions1067 Words   |  5 PagesReligion is a very intellectual topic in the world. 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There are so many different kinds of religions out there in this world right now. And all those religions come from someRead MoreCompare And Contrast Hinduism And Christianity1506 Words   |  7 PagesAt first glance, the religions of Hinduism and Christianity may seem as different as any two religions could be, but with deeper investigation, Hinduism and Christianity have more in common that originally perceived. When the values of Hinduism are examined closely, many of the virtues that Hindu’s strive for, are similar to the virtues that Christians strive to achieve. While The deities for the religions vary greatly, as do the ideas of after-life, both religions have a likeness in the ideas ofRead MoreAashirya Is A Charismatic And Energetic 58 Year Indian Woman Working1635 Words   |  7 Pagesrestaurant very often, and like myself, she preferred vegetarian meals. She would share stories of her childhood in India, her love for Indian music and movies from Bollywood. 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According to the book,.................................................... , the author discusses about the Islam’s traditions. The author, Tanya Gulevich was born and raised as a child in a beautiful place called San Francisco Bay area and this area was filled with di fferent kinds of cultures so this was pretty much a place that was known to be a very cultural, traditional and veryRead MoreReligion s Views On Religion904 Words   |  4 PagesReligion has been present in this world for thousands of years, providing ancient civilizations with answers to their questions and a moral code to abide by. Today, religion still serves that same purpose and more, forming and changing as time goes on. Though religions today may share some elements, they do share vastly different opinions on the soul, time, truth, and the senses, and provide answers and a way of life to those who desire it. Two forms of religion are animism versus anthropocentrism

Financial Analysis of Microsoft Corp. Essay - 2293 Words

This report is issued in order to inform the public about Microsoft Corporation. We analyzed the profitability and liquidity of this company. In addition, we were able to provide recommendations for investments or credits in Microsoft for the best interest of the public. Profitability ratios refer to the relative measure to what an actual created profit. Through these ratios the company is allowed to see how profitable the company. In addition it can serve as an examination of the overall performance of the company’s operations and how do these compare to past performances or other companies. The ratios in which accounting measures the profitability of a company are Profit Margin, Price over Earnings, Return on Equity and Return on†¦show more content†¦Microsoft’s times interest earned ratio is 87.7, showing that this firm is very successful especially before any interest or tax is deducted from its overall earnings. Apple’s times interest earned ratio could not be calculated due to the fact that their data didn’t indicate a specific interest expense to complete the equation. Another solvency ratio is the debt to equity ratio (I); taking the firms total liabilities and dividing that total by owners’ equity. Currently Microsoft’s debt to equity ratio is 0.8, showing that there is less risk among the firm’s financials. This also means that the company doesn’t rely too much on external lenders. Apple’s debt to equity ratio seems to also be within good standing because it is .5, so it doesn’t rely too much on external lenders either. Overall, both liquidity and solvency ratios represent how financially stable this company is within converting its current debt into cash as well as its long-term debt. In most cases Apple Inc. falls behind Microsoft Corp. within its short and long term debt solvency. When analyzing Microsoft’s capital structure the percentage of liabilities that construct the firm’s total assets is 42.87%. Showing that less than half of the firm’s total assets are represented by liabilities. Now the percentage of the total assets that are represented by stockholders’ equity is 57.12%. Showing that stockholderâ₠¬â„¢s equity represents slightly more than half ofShow MoreRelatedThe Balance Sheet For Microsoft1127 Words   |  5 PagesAccording to Bruns (2004), the balance sheet is a financial document, which identifies a company’s assets and liabilities. By deducting asserts from liabilities, a company’s net worth can be calculated to show the value of the company. Further, it shows the financial of the company on a particular date and â€Å"it provides a snapshot of a business’ health at a point in time† (Bond, n.d. p. 4). However, the fact that the balance sheet is a snapshot denotes that it is only valid at the time it was createdRead MoreEssay about Kudler Accounting System809 Words   |  4 PagesKudler Accounting System Dynamics ERP by Microsoft Corp. is the best choice for Kudler Fine Foods as they need a new accounting system in order to operate at full capacity the key features, technology, costs, and benefits in which they have to ensure growing success within Kudler Fine Foods depends on upgraded accounting technology to stay ahead of their competitors. The key features for this product, the core technology, overall benefits, and the low costs compared to the competition is the keyRead MoreStatement Of Cash Flows. When Comparing Statement Of Cash1250 Words   |  5 Pagesincome over the last three years almost doubles Microsoft net income in the same period of time. Both companies keep a steady depreciation rate over the three year time frame. Neither company takes a drastic dip or varies more than about a million dollars. The only difference is Microsoft spends less in depreciation each year, coming in about four million dollars lower than what Apple spends yearly. This could be caused by multiple things. Microsoft is a known software company while Apple is knownRead MoreHow Mergers And Acquisition Affect Financial Performance1170 Words   |  5 Pagesfirms to analysis their company value changes before after in disclosure date. Company choiceï ¼Å¡ Cisco system Inc, Lenovo Group Ltd, Microsoft Corporation Objectives The report will focus on analysis what kind of impact will affect companies’ financial performance and its value through companies’ mergers and acquisition in technology industry. 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Which of the three warehouse club rivals has been the strongest financial performer inRead MoreMicrosoft Corporations Income Statement1120 Words   |  5 PagesExhibit 1 provides the Microsoft Corporation’s income statement from 2013 to 2015. The Software Programming industry saw Revenue decrease just by -4.84%, Microsoft announced -5.14% year on year sales decline in the forth quarter, to $ 22.18 billions, and underperformed the 1.54% Revenue growth in the Technology sector. Above average sales gains in Technology and Software Programming industry, helped to elevate overall market growth to -6.77%. Comparing company’s Revenue to the third quarter

Sih Dlrow Seid Gnimaercs free essay sample

We all have them. The shining light that you aspire to be, that graceful figure, standing so proud and resolute. That strong stance, ready to protect and pulverize, and that wise mind that knows when to do the first and not to do the second. That firm voice and soft hand, reaching down to pull others up when they don’t even have the strength to open their eyes. A hero. A protector, champion, savior, a Superman, a protagonist. They’re necessary to literature and life. Without a hero, we’d have no story, no one to idolize, or hopelessly hope to be. And without a hero, we’d have no hope at all. Real or not, a hero inspires us to believe that someone out there can truly be good. And suddenly, the streets aren’t so scary, the night isn’t so threatening, and walking home alone doesn’t seem as stupid of an idea as it really is. The hero makes things interesting. Even in this very instant, hundreds around the world are skipping meals to keep the pages glued to their fingers, to watch the hero save the day and possibly, the world. Maximum Ride, The Circle Trilogy, The Faery Chronicles, Daniel X, Pendragon, Landon Snow, even the Bible itself boasts of heroic and daring tales of courage. All centered around the hero. Everyone knows this hero. The Idealist, sometimes annoying at the very least, but the most familiar. This hero sees the world for what it can be, what it has in store for itself. He sees the gentle nudges he’ll have to give and the roadblocks he’ll have to destroy, but trudges on nonetheless, with a savvy smile and a well-kept, iconic costume. A Superman, in every meaning of the word. He fights for truth, peace, and justice, and still handles a nine-to-five on the side, paying his dues and his taxes like any other citizen. He knows right from wrong, and sure, he’s thrown a cur veball everyone once in a while, but nothing he can’t handle. Sometimes he’s rich, above-ordinary from the start, but still relatable (till he’s bitten by a radioactive spider) and easy to admire. Never a bad-looking guy, sometimes young, sometimes aged, but attractive in every sense of the word, with a strong jaw and a firm grip. Kids love him, women want him, and men want to be him. Whether it is his job or his social life, there’s always that rival that fights to be above the hero but never quite makes it. Usually, the rival nearly makes it but by means of deceit. In the end he’s exposed, the schemes brought to life and the hero fixes the problem created by the rival’s mistake, being praised in turn. But here’s the kicker, the slap to the face; the hero is as humble as ever. There’s the Optimist. Practically an accidental comedian, he’s exaggerated and a borderline annoyance to anyone and everyone. He attempts to save the city and save the world in the splendor of an overcomplicated plan that generally falls flat on its face but he either doesn’t notice or doesn’t care, because he’s just â€Å"that awesome.† He’s the Cat Man, the Tick, Captain Underpants, basically the village idiot. The police generally face his plans and his presence with exasperation and the women he flirts with would probably prefer to smack him onto the ground. The only girl who would even consider this man is usually a dopey blonde and even then she’d probably hit him, if he wasn’t the savior of their city. Well, not that’s he really is. Because usually, the police or the hero’s sidekick or just some random nobody saves the day and the hero only believes he did. Even the villain himself stops the diabolical scheme, so annoyed by the hero’s melodramatic ramblings of overconfidence. The hero might even trip and actually arm the weapon of mass destruction h imself but the quirky villain that always comes with the even-quirkier hero would give up and leave. Just like that. He â€Å"saves the day† with sheer luck alone and deludes himself into believing that it’s skill. Then we have the Realist. He’s the doctor that saves the girl on the table, the cop that catches the gang member about to murder the family, the detective who found the serial killer, the fireman who ran headfirst into the flames and never looked back. They fight for truth, peace, and justice like the Idealist but their nine-to-five is one and the same. But what makes them Realists is not the fact that what they do is real. It’s the fact that they know it will never be over. The hope that people feel when they see the Idealist is there, just not as potent. The people saved know that their torment is far from over, that nightmares will plague their minds for longer than they’d like. But the Realist hero, ever the caregiver, takes their ha nd and leads them out of their (sometimes) figurative pit and pulls them to safety, all the while talking them through it. They’re supportive and understanding, they’ve seen enough of this to know what to do and what to say to make the victim believe that it would all be okay. Realists are the heroes that take care of the Optimist’s issues and even stay behind to clean up the mess after the media’s had their buzz. They’re professionals, they know what to do in any situation and know how to do it well. And then there’s the Pessimist, the tortured soul. The traumatized brother, the orphaned boy, the beaten-bloody corpse that somehow keeps stumbling aimlessly onward. His world dies screaming, and it’s all he can do not to break down and end it. Not with fighting or defeating the villain or seeking solace in warm arms, but ending it with an empty, dead-end hotel room, a chair, and a rope. No one’s even sure what’s kept him g oing, kept him moving, kept him alive, and kept him sane. He defeats the villain, eventually and usually at some great, inconceivable length, and almost never without a price that seemingly outweighs the victory itself. Maybe it’s a Faustian Bargain, maybe it’s the soul of his closest friend, or maybe it’s a piece of his mind. It’s almost never worth it, not in his eyes. And after his â€Å"triumph,† a happy ending is just as ridiculous as the fact that he even was able to beat the villain in the first place. He can’t live a normal life, if the cost of winning wasn’t his life in the first place. The memories and the senselessness would keep him from human interaction, he’d be a helpless wreck, swimming in a haze of paranoia and guilt. But he miraculously retains the image of a hero because of his inability to blame anyone but himself. Even if it isn’t his fault in the first place, there’s always some roundabout wa y that it was. Even if he gives up his life. No matter what he becomes, the guilt weighs on him, and him alone. But even then, it doesn’t end well. Heaven’s gates are locked to him and Hell is waiting with open arms. And should he ever escape Hell itself, he’d be less than human and hunted. One Hell for another, one fire for a different flame. The others, the Realists, Optimists, and Idealists, they all might just have to hunt him themselves. The Antihero, the Antichrist. There’s only so much someone can handle before he cracks. The world needs heroes to hope, even if the heroes can’t hope themselves. If not for anything else, people can realize how much worse it can get by analyzing how bad it is for someone else. A hero gives advice, without even saying a word to anyone directly. A hero is made to personify the possibility of actually being able to fight back against the things that go bump in the night. The prospect of things not being as bleak as they seem becomes so tempting that people write of a world with the ultimate protection and sell it on wooden shelves to survive. Consumerism is so widely based on novels and movies and just stories of heroes doing what they do best, even if by questionable means. The Idealist is the purity, and the Optimist is the product of cynics. The Realist is the rationality and logic and the Pessimist is the slap to the face everyone tries to ignore. And they all try to say the same thing. Once things are bad, everything has to work harder to make it worse.

To What Extent Did The Valois

To What Extent Did The Valois-Habsburg Conflict We Essay aken The French Monarchy During The Period Of 1519-1529To what extent did the Valois Habsberg conflict, weaken the French monarchy during the period of 1519-1529?In 1515 Francis I inherited the throne of France. His kingdom covered 459,000 square kilometres with the majority of its population in widely spread towns and cities. The population was about 15million, recovering from the ravages of the Hundred Years war and the Black Death. This had stimulated a recovery of French agriculture. The mining industry was also receiving official encouragement, if only to remedy an acute shortage of silver and German miners were being encouraged to settle in France. The French economy was in good shape with trade booming. . Frances relative prosperity allowed the monarchy to effectively collect tax revenues by employing tax collectors. France was also largely self-sufficient so it didnt spend much on imports from other countries. Frances oversees trade was expanding as it had regular trade from the Levant, Netherlands, Scandinavia and England. As a result the crown achieved 1300 livres alone from harbour dues each year. But these factors alone did not make the monarchy strong so therefore I must examine the strengths of the monarchy. We will write a custom essay on To What Extent Did The Valois-Habsburg Conflict We specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Many factors combined to give the impression that the monarchy was in a strong position. Firstly, we have the leadership Francis I who saw himself as a contemporary monarch. He was a Renaissance Prince and took an interest in the arts and new learning. This is how he wanted people to see him. He considered himself as a first amongst equals. It can also be said that there was no opposition towards his accession to the throne even though Mary Tudor (who married Louis XII just before he died) could have had a son who would make his claim void. Louis XIIs second wife did have children but they were all female therefore they were debarred from succession by Salic law. Francis was intelligent, well built and quick-witted which made him a good figurehead. He had also learnt the art of being a king and was popular amongst the nobility because of his character. Politically, the position of the monarchy was very strong not only in France but also in Western Europe. The monarchy enjoyed many features of absolute control over the realm and its dominions. A sign of this strength can be shown by the fact that the Estates General, which was the French national representative assembly like the English parliament, was never called during the reign of Francis I. The French parlements were only required to ratify laws, pass papal bulls and perform limited administrative tasks. The monarchy had some control over the church. All papal bulls had to go through parlement before becoming effective in France and the monarchy had some influence in appointing bishops and other leading officials. The kingdom had thousands of paid officials owing their position to the king and his patronage. Much of the power and influence of the Kings council and Grand council had been reduced. In fact the judicial role of the kings council had been moved to the Grand council by 1519. To add further insult these two councils were expected to follow the king around the country. The nobles had no real control over central government but they were powerful in regions. These groups, such as the Bourbon faction (mentioned later), could seek more power if the monarchy was ever weakened and as such they were a potential threat to the monarchy. The French monarchy was in a strong financial position probably the biggest reason for this is that the crown could levy taxes without having to call the Estates-General. The tax that brought in the most money for Francis and the only direct tax was the taille, which brought in 2.4 million livres out of a total revenue of 4.9 million at the start of Francis reign. However, in 1519, Francis had to spend a large amount of money to the sum of 400,000 crowns on bribing the imperial electors to back him instead of Charles. However, because Francis could not raise enough loans from bankers he lost the election and was left out of pocket because of it. Frances military strength was also a force to be reckoned with. The military was built up of a nucleus of French gendarmerie, which made up a standing army. This army was also highly experienced from the campaigns in Italy during the previous 30 years. The French army was also confident after defeating the Swiss at Marignano. The Swiss were the most formidable fighting forces at that time. French confidence and experience had also increased after they successfully defended Milan against imperial troops. Because of Frances wealth, and the Perpetual Peace of Fribourg of 1516, the king could always hire Swiss mercenaries if he needed to. The military generals of France were also very competent in particular Charles de Bourbon, who became Constable of France. It was the diplomatic front, which allowed Francis to project not only his power and prestige but also Frances. This is probably best seen by his spectacular show at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. This wonderful event was staged to secure a treaty with Henry VIII of England. The monarchys relationship with the Pope was also good as Francis held the title of Most Catholic King. The Concordat of Bologna signed by the pope in December 1515 also legalised and enlarged royal control over the Church in France. In 1516 the Treaty of Noyon was signed between Charles I of Spain and Francis. Charles was to marry Francis daughter and pay a tribute for Naples as recognition of the French claim. This allowed Charles to establish his authority in Spain without a challenge from France. Another treaty between France and Spain in 1517 at Cambrai meant a state of peace existed between the two. This peace was, in fact, designed for Francis, Charles and Maximillian in the event of an attack by the Turk s, to join in a Christian crusade. This peace was recognised by the Pope in 1518 to further strengthen the monarchys diplomatic position. Overall, the monarchy appeared in a sound and secure position diplomatically by 1519. Unfortunately, Francis did suffer a personal and strategic set back after Charles was elected as Holy Roman emperor in 1519. Despite these features which made the French monarchy appear strong, there were potential challenges to its authority and prestige. Perhaps the biggest threat to the French monarchy would come from the aristocracy. There are many reasons why the aristocracy could have come to challenge the monarchys position. One reason could be because the Kings personal council was made to follow him around the country instead of having a permanent seat in Paris. This would mean that the council was always under close scrutiny by the King and was given little or no opportunity for courtiers to work on their own. The King also held the right to appoint his closest friend s onto the conseil secret. This was just an extension of the Kings council but it was a prestigious position. This could lead to rivalry between the nobles and possible resentment towards the King. The influence of the old aristocracy was also in decline as educated people were being used in these offices instead such as Chancery. H ostility could have also come from subjects of provinces and the Governors themselves as the Governors were often expected to be at court or fighting for the King. An example of the absenteeism of Governors can be found examining the career of Odet de Foix who was Marshall of France. He was often away from his province as he was expected to lead the Kings armies. These nobles were also expected to provide funds and gendamerie for the campaigns the King undertook. Perhaps the biggest threat to the monarchy from the aristocracy was that of Charles de Bourbon whom Charles appointed Constable of France in 1515. This was the highest military office under the King himself and he was an effective commander of the French army during peacetime. However, the first signs of discontent were found in 1521 when Francis gave command of the Vanguard to Alencon. Usually, the Constable commanded the vanguard and Charles clearly took offence but concealed his feelings. The final insult was when Charle s wife, Suzanne, died and Louise of Savoy contested the inheritance of the Bourbon lands, as she was the closest relative. Both claims had to go through Parlement but since Francis supported his mothers claim he started to divide up the lands of Bourbon between himself and his mother without Parlements verdict. Charles de Bourbons reaction could not have been more defiant when in 1523 he joined Charles becoming one of his most able commanders. .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4 , .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4 .postImageUrl , .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4 , .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4:hover , .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4:visited , .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4:active { border:0!important; } .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4:active , .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4 .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue3350d1d4d12a5289ce3ae44ead5aeb4:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Beloved And Toni Morrison EssayAnother potential challenge for the monarchy could have come from the Parlements. Francis tended to be very short with the Parlements when he dealt with them. Francis disliked the way Parlements magistrates who compared themselves to senators of ancient Rome. Furthermore, Francis even threatened to make Parlements follow him around the country if they didnt comply with his wishes. Francis also alienated crown lands by gift or sale to pay off debts or raise money. Since Parlement saw itself as the defender of the French crown against the personal actions of a particular monarch they thought that this was a breach of Fundamental Law. Parlement was often asked to raise money for the King. An example of this can be found when examining Francis reaction to the hostage situation involving his sons. He expected Parlement to raise the funds to pay for the ransom of his sons or to pay for an army to fight Charles in the event of Charles refusal to release his captives. It could also be said that because Louise of Savoy relied on the Parlement of Paris so heavily that they might have got a taste of power and wanted to keep it. Not only did Louise need the Parlement of Paris to make sure there was a steady supply of grain and food into Paris but she also needed it to fund the defence the north against a possible Anglo-Imperial invasion while Louise was in the south. Conflict with the papacy could develop due to the monarchys influence over the Church. Francis set up commissions to see if the Church was acquiring lands without paying its dues. These commissions were set up in 1520 and were called nouveau acquits and droit damortissement. These were designed to stop churchmen acquiring gifts without paying the correct dues. The monarchy also had a lot of influence over the appointment of the clergy as the bishops appointed could of received their position because of their relationship with the King rather than what they did within the Church. The Church was also taxed heavily in relation to raising funds for the ransom, which again could lead to discontent. The Church was also burdened with having to deal with heresy within the state leaving it with little time to influence politics. Normally, relations between the King of France and the Popes were good after all the French King did hold the title of Most Catholic King. However, when the pope saw the lands that Charles had acquired he decided that it would be a better idea to sign a treaty between the Emperor and the papacy. Francis took offence at this and stopped all revenues from the French church going to the papacy. The pope could also resent the concordat of Bologna in 1516. This was signed to stop the French invading the Papal States to get to Naples. This meant that Francis was more or less without allies in Western Europe leaving him vulnerable to attack. Other potential external threats included Charles V (now Holy Roman emperor since 1519), Henry VIII of England. Charles Vs reasons for being a threat were not his own doing. From Charles perspective Francis, perhaps out of jealousy, was the instigator for armed conflict. This is probably because Charles was not only King of Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor but that he also had a strong influence in Italy. Nevertheless, Charles was aggressive, as he did want the lands of Navarre to be given back to Spain and wanted the lands of Burgundy returned and the French to renounce its claim to Milan. Henry VIII, on the other hand, also saw himself as a Renaissance Prince and also saw France as the old enemy. Henry VIII always wanted to restore the English empire and continue the campaigns into France like he and indeed Henry V had done years before. Henry VIII had also signed a secret treaty in 1521to attack France in May 1523. Henry could have also taken offence not only to losing to the King of France during a wrestling match at the Field of the Cloth of Gold but also in having his ambassadors kept wa iting when he offered arbitration between Francis and Charles. Henry VIII could also have been extremely jealous of Francis as they were both sporting men and Henry that he had to do better than Francis. Before looking at how the conflict affected the French monarchy I will go through the events that could have had an Impact from 1519 to 1529. After the election of Charles as Holy Roman emperor in 1519, Francis hoped to delay Charles journey to Italy to be crowned by the Pope. On the 29 May 1520 Francis also lost the support of Leo X, who signed a treaty with Charles and on the 28 June lightening struck an ammunition store killing 300 French troops. When Robert de la Marck, Lord of Sedan, invaded Luxembourg in 1521, few believed that Francis had nothing to do with it. Francis had in fact paid La Marck 100,000 ecus and twenty-five men at arms in return for serving him. Francis also took advantage of the Commeros Revolt to invade Spanish Navarre. Francis success was short lived as Imperial forces not only liberated Luxembourg but also the lordship of Sedan and threatened Frances northern border. The Calais conference in 1521 gave Francis until the following November to end hostilities or England would enter the fray. On the 23 September Seigneur de Lorges was successful in bringing supplies to the besieged town of Mecieres. On the 19 October Bonnivet captured the Key to Spain, Fuenterrabia, which meant the war was turning in favour of Francis. These victories had an impact on the talks in Calais, which meant that Wolsey was more reluctant to back Charles and Francis was even less interested in a truce. On the 23 October, Francis missed a unique opportunity to end the war quickly. The two armies met near Bouchain but because of bad weather Francis was unable to see the exact strength of the imperial army and did not risk an attack. The Imperial army was in fact a lot smaller that that of Francis and could have been easily routed but the opportunity was missed. Milan fell on the 19 November after Lautrec could not afford to maintain the troops there. Francis would not rest until Milan was recaptured and ordered 16,000 troops from Switzerland. The price was high. When his troops were received by Lautrec, he attempted to besiege Milan but found it too well defended and so he retreated. Francis was not happy with this and ordered Lautrec into battle. The battle of La Bicocca was a foregone conclusion with the loss of some 3,000 Swiss troops and many captains. The defeat in Italy brought England into the war but lack of money and supplies limited any real impact. In July, Francis prepared to invade Italy but soon found out about his Constables treachery. This threw Francis plans into disarray, which meant Francis had to stay in France. The invasion into Italy was then to be led by Admiral Bonnivet who was defeated by the Viceroy of Naples in April 1524. In July, an Imperial invasion led by Bourbon made ground in Provence. Francis took one last chance that year and crossed the Alps in record time to take Milan. Francis then decided to besiege Pavia, which meant his troops would have to suffer the harsh winter. The new Pope was beginning to favour Francis because of his successes in Italy but neither side wanted peace. On the 24 February 1525 the battle of Pavia started with the French camp being taken by surprise and ended with the capture of Francis himself. Amongst the dead were a number of Francis closes t friends and nobles. The only important noble to escape was the Kings brother in law, Charles dAlencon. The King was finally released from imprisonment by promising the duchy of Burgundy and his two sons as hostages to Charles in the treaty of Madrid. Meanwhile, Louise of Savoy, acting as regent, was successful in defending the Kingdom against an English invasion by detaching Henry from his alliance with Charles in the Treaty of More. As soon as Francis had regained his freedom he refused to honour the Treaty of Madrid. Instead of giving up the lands of Burgundy he offered the Emperor a cash settlement. Things once again turned in Francis favour when the papacy and other Italian states joined with Francis in the Holy League of Cambrai in 1526. This however, didnt avert the Sack of Rome by Imperial troops in May 1527. The Treaty of Amiens was signed on August 1527, as the Pope was practically the prisoner of the emperor. This also gave Francis an excuse to commit himself to an armed intervention into Italy commanded by Marshall Lautrec; the army crossed the Alps and took over the whole of Lombardy excluding Milan. As a result, Charles refused to release Francis sons as long as the French army remained in Italy. The French army besieged Naples but after the blockade was lifted an outbreak of plague or cholera in the French camp carried off Lautrec and a large proportion of the army lifting the siege. Peace talks commenced after Charles was promised to be crowned as Emperor by the Pope. Louise of Savoy and Margaret of Savoy negotiated the treaty of Cambrai on the 3 August 1529. .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8 , .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8 .postImageUrl , .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8 , .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8:hover , .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8:visited , .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8:active { border:0!important; } .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8:active , .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8 .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u1e04b8dc0ad301b430e4ec6d9c700ec8:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Beyond Budgeting Debate Criticisms Of Budget Accounting EssaySo was the French monarchy weakened by these events of 1519 to 1529? It is true that financially the whole affair was very costly. It cost Francis 2 million gold crowns to pay Charles his ransom. Francis constantly needed money from somewhere. Francis would alienate crown lands to find the money he needed. He also got the support of the public and the church to raise funds. He also looked more closely at his financial administration in an attempt to reduce corruption. Before 1523 the financial administration was more or less the same as it was for Charles VII (1422-1461). It had to kinds of administrations, o ne for Ordinary revenues and the other for extraordinary revenues. The former was called the Tresor and was headed by four Tresoriers de France. Their job was to supervise collection and disbursement of revenues but the actual handling was done by Receveurs ordinaires. The Extraordinary revenues were looked after by four Generaux des Finances. Responsible for all revenues was the Receiver-General with the title Changeur du Tresor. He was based in Paris but little revenue actually got to him as many debts were settled by means of warrants (decharges) at a local level. This saved the expense of carting large amounts of money across the dangerous countryside of France. These two administrations were expected to come to court when they could and also to draw up a sort of budget based on the accounts from each district. The French monarch was virtually bankrupt in 1523 so to solve the problem Francis reformed his treasury and increased his revenues. Francis created a new office, the Tres orier de lEparge who reported only to the King. This new position destroyed the influence of the Tresoriers and Generaux and also eliminated most of the corruption. Revenues came in from the sale of annuities. These rentes de lhotel de ville were like loans for Francis. The French crown had to deal with the growing problem of inflation. The campaigning in 1523 had cost Francis 50 per cent of his annual income. So financially the monarchy was not permanently damaged by the war although it was a set back he was able to obtain money from nobility and the church to pay for his sons ransom. In fact the war had helped to develop a more financially secure system. The campaigns had also been costly on the military strength. Not only did Francis end up losing 16,000 Swiss troops after La Bicocca but at Pavia, it is thought that some 10,000 men were taken prisoner or killed. However, since tactics had changed after the first Italian campaigns, commanders no longer relied on their heavy cavalry. Instead, they would use infantry. Because the armies used were so large it was impossible a monarch to fund a standing army of that size. Francis was forced to use foreign mercenaries especially the Swiss and Germans. It would be these mercenaries that tended to take the heaviest losses. So there is no evidence that after the war, France was weakened militarily or that it could not re -supply its gendarmee. It had however lost some of its best commanders and closest advisors most notably Charles de Bourbon in battle or in treachery. Administantivly, the monarchy also kept its strength. Even without the King, Louise of Savoy was able to keep a disgruntled Parlement in check and gave it a warning not to trespass on the Kings authority. It is true that some people did not like the idea of a female monarch and thought that Charles de Bourbon should be regent. However, this was overcome and Parlement assured the King of its loyalty. This is probably down to the way Louise dealt with Parlement. She was more tactful with it and tended to flatter it. Nevertheless, there were no significant uprisings or political changes during this period to weaken the position of the monarchy. If anything, Francis captivity meant that the country could be run effectively without him being there. This can also be attributed to Chancery, which was responsible for the drawing up of laws. It was headed by the Chancellor and contained 119 notaries and secretaries. As the load of government business increased, the notaries or secretaries wer e allowed to sign the concilliar decisions to make them valid. The diplomatic position of the French monarchy ended more or less as it started. England and the Empire became enemies of France by the treaty of Bruges in 1521, as did the pope when he saw how powerful Charles was becoming. However, Louise was successful in prising Henry away from his alliance with Charles in the Treaty of More. France also joined the Holy League of Cambrai with the pope. So once again France was in a strong diplomatic position with both England and the Papacy at his side. Francis did lose Milan, which was a serious set back for him not only strategically but also personally. He had also lost his influence over Genoa by 1529 but there were new potential allies outside of Christendom in the form of the Turks to redress the balance. If the image of the monarchy had been seriously damaged then Francis wouldnt have been able to extend his grip on power as well as he did so. Surely, there would have been opposition to proposals he put forward or even for his continuing campaigns into Italy. The fact that there was only one notable act of treason is more proof that Francis still had the support of his political elite. No doubt his capture was a personal embarrassment but it didnt have a serious effect on the position of the monarchy. Another sign of its strength is the acceptance of a woman as regent so it is my opinion that the image of the monarchy was not substantially damaged either. It is true that the treaty of Cambrai was an embarrassment for Francis, however studying the decade it is my judgement that the conflict did not weaken the French monarchy. The areas of French society, which provided strength to the monarchy, were affected individually and French finances were seriously weakened. However, these weaknesses were only temporary and the French monarchy, probably, because it was so strong to start off with was able to recover and continue to develop in a similar way to the manner in which it had been changing since the mid 15th Century. However, recognition of the collapse of Royal power later in the 16th century, after the death of Henri II, could be linked to weaknesses already apparent in this period. European History Essays

Definition and Examples of Language Contact

Definition and Examples of Language Contact Definition Language contact is the social and linguistic phenomenon by which speakers of different languages (or different dialects of the same language) interact with one another, leading to a transfer of linguistic features. Language contact is a major factor in language change, notes Stephan Gramley. Contact with other languages and other dialectal varieties of one language is a source of alternative pronunciations, grammatical structures, and vocabulary (The History of English: An Introduction, 2012). Prolonged language contact generally leads to bilingualism or multilingualism. Uriel Weinreich (Languages in Contact, 1953) and Einar  Haugen (The Norwegian Language in America, 1953) are  commonly regarded as the pioneers of language-contact studies. A particularly influential later study is  Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics by  Sarah Grey Thomason  and  Terrence Kaufman (University of California Press, 1988). Examples and Observations [W]hat counts as language contact? The mere juxtaposition of two speakers of different languages, or two texts in different languages, is too trivial to count: unless the speakers or the texts interact in some way, there can be no transfer of linguistic features in either direction. Only when there is some interaction does the possibility of a contact explanation for synchronic variation or diachronic change arise. Throughout human history, most language contacts have been face to face, and most often the people involved have a nontrivial degree of fluency in both languages. There are other possibilities, especially in the modern world with novel means of worldwide travel and mass communication: many contacts now occur through written language only. . . . [L]anguage contact is the norm, not the exception. We would have a right to be astonished if we found any language whose speakers had successfully avoided contacts with all other languages for periods longer than one or two hundred years. (Sarah Thomason, Contact Explanations in Linguistics.  The Handbook of Language Contact, ed. by  Raymond Hickey. Wiley-Blackwell, 2013) Minimally, in order to have something that we would recognize as language contact, people must learn at least some part of two or more distinct linguistic codes. And, in practice, language contact is really only acknowledged when one code becomes more similar to another code as a result of that interaction. (Danny Law,  Language Contact, Inherited Similarity and Social Difference. John Benjamins, 2014)   Different Types of Language-Contact Situations Language contact is not, of course, a homogeneous phenomenon. Contact may occur between languages which are genetically related or unrelated, speakers may have similar or vastly different social structures, and patterns of multilingualism may also vary greatly. In some cases the entire community speaks more than one variety, while in other cases only a subset of the population is multilingual. Lingualism and lectalism may vary by age, by ethnicity, by gender, by social class, by education level, or by one or more of a number of other factors. In some communities there are few constraints on the situations in which more than one language can be used, while in others there is heavy diglossia, and each language is confined to a particular type of social interaction. . . .   While there a great number of different language contact situations, a few come up frequently in areas where linguists do fieldwork. One is dialect contact, for example between standard varieties of a language and regional varieties (e.g., in France or the Arab world). . . . A further type of language contact involves exogamous communities where more than one language might be used within the community because its members come from different areas. . . .The converse of such communities where exogamy leads to multilingualism is an endoterogenous community which maintains its own language for the purpose of excluding outsiders. . . . Finally, fieldworkers particularly often work in endangered language communities where language shift is in progress.   (Claire Bowern, Fieldwork in Contact Situations.  The Handbook of Language Contact, ed. by  Raymond Hickey. Wiley-Blackwell, 2013)   The Study of Language Contact - Manifestations of language contact are  found in a great variety of domains, including language acquisition, language processing and production, conversation and discourse, social functions of language and language policy, typology and language change, and more. . . . [T]he study of language contact is of value toward an understanding of the inner functions and the inner structure of grammar and the language faculty itself. (Yaron Matras, Language Contact. Cambridge University Press, 2009) - A very naive view of language contact would probably hold that speakers take bundles of formal and functional properties, semiotic signs so to speak, from the relevant contact language and insert them into their own language. To be sure, this view is much too simplistic and not seriously maintained any longer. A probably more realistic view held in language contact research is that whatever kind of material is transferred in a situation of language contact, this material necessarily experiences some sort of modification through contact. (Peter Siemund, Language Contact: Constraints and Common Paths of Contact-Induced Language Change.  Language Contact and Contact Languages, ed. by  Peter Siemund and Noemi Kintana. John Benjamins, 2008) Language Contact and Grammatical Change [T]he transfer of grammatical meanings and structures across languages is regular, and . . . it is shaped by universal processes of grammatical change. Using data from a wide range of languages we . . . argue that this transfer is essentially in accordance with principles of grammaticalization, and that these principles are the same irrespective of whether or not language contact is involved, and of whether it concerns unilateral or multilateral transfer.. . . [W]hen embarking on the work leading to this book we were assuming that grammatical change taking place as a result of language contact is fundamentally different from purely language-internal change. With regard to replication, which is the central theme of the present work, this assumption turned out to be unfounded: there is no decisive difference between the two. Language contact can and frequently does trigger or influence the development of grammar in a number of ways; overall, however, the same kind of processes and directionality can be observed in both. Still, there is reason to assume that language contact in general and grammatical replication in particular may accelerate grammatical change . . .. (Bernd Heine and Tania Kuteva,  Language Contact and Grammatical Change. Cambridge University Press, 2005) Old English and Old Norse Contact-induced grammaticalization is part of contact-induced grammatical change,and in the literature of the latter it has been repeatedly pointed out that language contact often brings about loss of grammatical categories. A frequent example given as illustration of this kind of situation involves Old English and Old Norse, whereby Old Norse was brought to the British Isles through the heavy settlement of Danish  Vikings in the Danelaw area during the 9th to 11th centuries. The result of this language contact is reflected in the linguistic system of Middle English, one of the characteristics of which is the absence of grammatical gender. In this particular language contact situation, there seems to have been an additional factor leading to the loss, namely, the genetic closeness andaccordinglythe urge to diminish the functional overload of speakers bilingual in Old English and Old Norse.   Thus a functional overload explanation  seems to be a plausible way to account for what we observe in Middle English, that is, after Old English and Old Norse had come into contact: gender assignment often diverged in Old English and Old Norse, which would have readily led to the elimination of it in order to avoid confusion and to lessen the strain of learning the other contrastive system. (Tania Kuteva and  Bernd Heine, An Integrative Model of Grammaticalization.   Grammatical Replication and Borrowability in Language Contact, ed. by  Bjà ¶rn Wiemer, Bernhard Wlchli, and Bjà ¶rn Hansen. Walter de Gruyter, 2012) Also  See AccommodationBorrowingContact LanguageHistorical LinguisticsKoineizationLanguage ChangeSociolinguistics

Golobalisation and Transnationalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Golobalisation and Transnationalism - Essay Example London and Great Britain, in general, has been receiving large crowds of migrants in the last few years. This has contributed to an impact on the culture and the language as well as made the men and women conscious of the racial and ethnic implications. Not just human beings who have lost out in this war of globalisation but also bio-diversity and society as a whole which has resulted in large decline of social values. Globalisation has brought down the number of varieties of cauli flower, sugar beets, cabbage and other such non-hybrid vegetables by 41% all over the world (Seed Savers Exchange 1999). Out of 30,000 varieties of rice that existed in the world, rice diversity has been reduced to 50 varieties only (Ramprasad 2002). Similar impact has happened in animal breeds as well. Out of 3831 varieties of domesticated cattle, 618 varieties have become extinct (Hall & Ruane 1993). Human race does not want to breed economically poor varieties of cattle or plants. The same has happened with the human race too. Globalisation has severely curtailed the diversity that existed in human social life. This is also seen in the London Social life since the culture of the dominant human species has over run the others. The overall increase in the GDP of the world is primarily being contributed by foreign investments directly. The graph below shows the rising share of the foreign investment in the world GDP (Martin Wolf 2004). This is direct offshoot of globalisation resulting in the growth of the living standards of the people across the world. The integrated global economy now has more than 6 billion people across the world compared to 1.5 billion in 1980 (Rischard J F 2002). Human rights has been extended and the integration of the world finds many people migrating to newer locations including London and Great Britain. London's population is expected to surge by nearly 700,000 people to reach the figure of 8.1 million by 2016 (Mayor of London 2002). The population growth has become an important consideration, though the growth rate has come down. The graph below shows the increase from a 2.5 billion population of the world in 1950 to 6.3 billion in 2003. This has a strong influence in the ethnic mix of the world. In addition to all these globalisation economies taking the society on its way, there are a multitude of movements that have taken up global dimensions due to the large scale networking that is happening. Globalisation and economic injustice have always gone together. These are being fought over by a number of Civil Society Organisations (CSO) (John Clark 29 Apr 2003). The effect of these CSOs are becoming more and more pronounced in the international policy making and in resolving disputes between parties. While at the same time, the number of ethnic migrants into the country, more particularly, the London region, is posing problem for people who are handling it. This is arising because of the large scale migration happening due to globalisation (Michael Storper 30 May 2002). France has become an immigrant country while the rest of the Europe is also facing the migration issue. While the population grow

Evaluating Adtopia (Advertising and Utopia) Essay

Evaluating Adtopia (Advertising and Utopia) - Essay Example Hummer: A High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV) with supreme off road ability, and a major league attention getter. You can go from being an outcast to a winner with this non-environmental friendly vehicle. This ad attempts to describe a driver's utopia, an advertising promise. When in reality, the Hummer as many other vehicles, pollute the environment, destroy the landscape and may be responsible for injury or death. Could the Hummer in many ways be a secret war on humanity This ad gives the idea that the Hummer is the ultimate off road warrior. However, it drives poorly on the street, and there is no room for such a big vehicle with low power at such a high price. It needs are roads with dirt or mud, preferably with rain or snow. If you live on a farm, a ranch or in the desert, it is one unstoppable and indestructible vehicle but if you live in the city where most of us live, the Hummer is only useful for getting you around the city. The utopia in this ad does identify with the fantasy, idealization and an image of impossible perfection. However, it is evidence that the Hummer is another utopia that has gone sour. Budweiser: Because Budweiser, the nation's most widely consumer alcohol beverage has lost ground recently to liquor and wine, the brewing company seeks a more stylish image for its beer. These ads display new and unusual packing, and are placed in bars and restaurant to create a sense of utopia which Sam Adam as managed to successfully convey. As you mentioned, everyone in the ad is having a great time in such happy togetherness. Negatives of alcoholism, fighting, hangovers and discrimination are absent. The ads do exclude the unattractive, elderly and obese and only contain those who are attractive. But hoping to make its existing products seem more distinctive and without changing the content of the ads, Budweiser new ads are chic and the colorful aluminum bottles give the product a funky post-modern look. The ads give the product a hip, retro-chic appearance. How impressive Though alcohol is harmful to health, through advertising, the brewer has achieved utopia with its more sophisticated, upscale image. Red Lobster: Great service, good seafood where a family can share a plate of crab legs and discuss the topic of the day. Girlfriends can meet to gossip while dipping lobster tails in butter and keeping track of who is doing what. Without the use of people in their commercials, Red Lobster's ads make this connection possible. You are absolutely correct in your observation: endless quantity, no consequences for eating, no people in the commercial, and the relationship with food is significant. But these ads show an extraordinary sense of utopia. In my experience at Red Lobster, the food was delicious and this ad was excellent in delivering my experience. The commercial revealed clues as to where quality and quantity reside. It was a remembered utopian experience. Walt Disney: Welcome to happiest place on earth: Walt Disney World. The television commercials all advertise the utopia that Walt Disney has managed to build. Such ads boast the perfect week, fun for the whole family, not just the kids. These ads typically show a family of four-mother, father, and children-laughing, smiling, and enjoying their time at Walt

Phage Therapy to Treat Bacterial Infections

Phage Therapy to Treat Bacterial Infections Introduction Bateriophages The word bacteriophage, which is a name for bacterial viruses, means â€Å"eater of bacteria.† These viruses parasitize and kill bacteria. Pioneering work on the genetics of bacteriophages in the middle of the twentieth century formed the foundation of more recent research on tumor-causing viruses and other kinds of animal and plant viruses. In this way bacterial viruses have provided an important model system. A bacteriophage is a bacterial parasite. By itself, a phage can persist, but it cannot replicate except within a bacterial cell. Most phages possess genes encoding a variety of proteins. (Ringo John) Discovery and Significance Bacteriophages, viruses that infect or kill bacteria, were discovered by Frederick W. Twort in England in 1917 independently. Twort observed that bacterial colonies sometimes underwent lysis (dissolved and disappeared) and that this lytic effect could be transmitted from colony to colony. Even high dilutions of material from a lysed colony that had been passed through a bacterial filter could transmit the lytic effect. However, heating the filtrate destroyed its lytic property. From these observations Twort suggested that the lytic agent might be a virus. D’Herelle rediscovered the phenomenon in 1917 (hence the term Twort –d’Herelle phenomenon) and coined the word bacteriophge, which means â€Å"bacteria eater.† He considered the filterable agent to be an invisible microbe- for example, a virus- that was parasitic for bacteria. (Pelczar) Since the bacterial hosts of phages are easily cultivated under controlled conditions, demanding relatively little in terms of time, labor, and space compared with the maintenance of plant and animal hosts, bacteriophages have received considerable attention in viral research. Furthermore, since bacteriophages are the smallest and simplest biological entities known which are capable of self replication, they have been widely used in genetic research. Much has been learned about host parasite relationship from these studies, which have provided a better understanding of plant and animal infections with viral pathogens. Thus the bacterium-bacteriophage interaction has become the model system for the study of viral pathogenicity. (Pelczar) General characteristics Bacterial viruses are widely distributed in nature. Phages exists for most, if not all, bacteria. With the proper techniques these phages can be isoalated quit easily in the laboratory. Bacteriophages, like all viruses, are composed of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein coat. Bacterial viruses occurring different shapes, although many have a tail through which they inoculate the host cell with viral nucleic acid. There are two main types of bacterial viruses: lytic, or virulent, and temperate or avirulent. When lytic phages infect cells, the cells respond by producing large numbers of new viruses. That is, at the end of the incubation period the host cell bursts or lyses, releasing new phages to infect other host cells. This is called a lytic cycle. In the temperate type of infection, the result is not so readily apparent. The viral nucleic acid is carried and replicated in the host bacterial cells from one generation to another without any cell lysis. However, temperate phages may spontaneously become virulent at some subsequent generation and lyse the host cells. In addition, there are some filamentous phages which simply â€Å"leak† out of cells without killing them. Types of Bacteriophages There are two types of bacteriophages. Virulent phages and Temperate phages Virulent phages :- As a result of reproduction, virulent phages destroy their host. For example :- T pahges or T1-T7 group of phages infect E.coli bacteria. Temperate Phages :- temperate phages do not kill their host and take over its machinery. For example :- Lambda phage (Study.com) Fig -1 Fates of Phages Morphology and Structure The electron microscope has made it possible to determine the structural characteristics of bacterial viruses. All phages have a nucleic acid core covered by a protein coat, or capsid. The capsid is made up of microbiological subunits called capsomeres. The capsomere consists of a number of protein subunits or molecules called protomers. Figure 1 shows the fine structure and anatomy of a common morphological form of the bacteriophage, one with a head and a tail. Fig. 2 Diagrammatic representation of coliphage Bacterial viruses may be grouped into six morphological types This type has a hexagonal head, a rigid tail with a contractile sheath, and tail fibers. This type has a hexagonal head similar to A. However, it lacks a contractile sheath, its tail is flexible, and it may or may not have tail fibers. This type is characterized by a hexagonal head and a tail shorter than the head. The tail has no contractile sheath and may or may not have tail fibers. This type has a head made up of large capsomeres, but has no tail. This type has a head made up of small capsomeres, but has no tail. This type is filamentous. Types A, B, and C Show a morphology unique to bacteriophages. The morphological types in groups D and E are found in plant and animal viruses as well. The filamentous form of group F is found in some plant viruses. Fig – 3 Types of Bacteriophages Phage Structure Most phages occur in one of two structural forms, having either cubic or helical symmetry. In overall appearance, cubic phages are regular solids or, more specifically, polyhedral; helical phages are rod-shaped. Polyhedral phages are icosahedral in shape. (The icosahedrons is a regular polyhedron with 20 triangular facets and 12 vertices.) This means that the capsid has 20 facets, each of which is an equilateral triangle; these facets come together to form the 12 corners. In the simplest capsid, there is a capsomere at each of the 12 vertices; this capsomere, which is surrounded by five other capsomeres, is termed as a penton. For example, the φX174 exhibits the simple capsid. In larger and more complex capsids, the triangular facets are subdivided into a progressively larger number of equilateral triangles. Thus a capsid maybe composed of capsomeres but it is still based on the simple icosahedrons model. The elongated heads of some tailed phages are derivatives of the icosahedrons. For example the head of the T2 and T4 phages is an icosahedron elongated by one or two extra bands of hexons. Rod-shaped viruses have their capsomeres arranged helically and not in stacked rings. An example is the Bacteriophages M13. Some bacteriophages, such as the T-even coliphages (T2, T4 and T6), have very complex structures, including a head and a tail. They are said to have binal symmetry because each virion has both an icosahedral head and a hollow helical tail. Phage Nucleic Acids Different morphological types of phages are also characterized by having different nucleic acid types. All tailed phages contain double-stranded DNA. The phages with large capsomeres and the filamentous ones have single-stranded DNA. Group E phages have single-stranded RNA. The DNAs of phages are circular under certain conditions. The DNA of phage φX174 is circular both in the virion and in the host cell. The DNA of phage lambda is linear in the virion, but on entering the host cell the cohesive ends join to form a circle. Infection of bacteria by phages Most bacteria are susceptible to attack by bacteriophages. A phage consists of a nucleic acid â€Å"chromosome† (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a coat of protein molecules. Phage types are identified not by species names but by symbols – for example, phageT4, phage lambda, and so forth. During infection, phage attaches to a bacterium and injects its genetic material into the bacterial cytoplasm. The phage genetic information then takes over the machinery of the bacterial cell by turning off the synthesis of bacterial components and redirecting the bacterial synthetic machinery to make phage components. Newly made phage heads are individually stuffed with replicates of the phage chromosome. Ultimately, many phage descendants are made and are released when the bacterial cell wall breaks open. This breaking open process is called lysis. The population of phage progeny is called the phage lysate. Commercial production of Phages In D’Herelle’s laboratory against various bacterial infections five phage preparations were produced. That phage preparations are Bacte-coli-phage, Bacte-rhino-phage, Bacte-intesti phage, Bacte-pyo-phage and Bacte-staphy phage. In the United States therapeutic phages were also produced. Seven phage product for human use produced by the Eli Lilly company in the 1940s including preparations against Staphylococci, Sreptococci, E.coli, and other bacterial pathogen. These preparations contains phage-lysed, bacteriologically sterile broth cultures of the targeted bacteria. These preparations were used against various infections including wounds, vaginitis, acute and chronic infections of the upper respiratory tract, abscesses and mastoid infections. In most of the Western World commercial production of therapeutic phages ceased because of controversy. But in Eastern Europe and in the former Soviet Union the use of phages continued therapeutically together with or instead of antibiotics. (Sulakvelidze.,et.al,2001) Phage therapy Pharmacokinetics Pharmacology is the study of drug’s impact on the body and body’s impact on the drugs. These two concepts are known as pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. In the concept of body, while considering anti microbial as drugs which includes both normal body tissues and the numerous symbiotic micro-organisms. Here we consider only pharmacokinetic aspect of phage therapy pharmacology. Pharmacokinectics describes drug’s potential that are sufficient to achieve primary pharmacodynamic effects. This description is distinguished into absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion components. Drug movement into the blood is absorption, drug movement into other body tissues is distribution, modification of drugs within the body is metabolism, and movement of drugs out of the body is excretion. These four pharmacokinetic aspects have the effect of both reducing and increasing drug densities. In the case of absorption and distribution, drug densities declines due to drug dilution and at the same time drug density increases in specific body compartments. Metabolism results phage inactivation due to phage interaction with immune systems or â€Å"activation† such as phage in situ replication. Excretion can reduce of drug densities in the body, it can also increased drug densities in bladder with therapeutic benefits. The success of phage therapy depends on generation of sufficient phage densities in the vicinity of the target bacteria to cause bacterial removal from the body at some adequate rate. Sufficient densities of phage will increase either to in situ replication which is a active treatment, or a consequence of what can be described as pharmacologically conventional dosing, is called passive treatment. (Abedon et al,2011) Potential benefits Phage therapy offers a possible alternative to conventional antibiotic treatments for bacterial infections. Phages are very specific to target one or a few strains of bacteria. Traditional antibiotics kill both harmful bacteria and useful bacteria such as those facilitating food digestion. The specificity of phages might reduce the chance that useful bacteria are killed when fighting on infection. Phages have ability to travel to a required site including brain. (Wikipedia.org) Phages are natural antimicrobial agents to fight bacterial infections in humans, in animals or in crops of agricultural importance. Phages have hygiene measure in hospitals and in food production facilities. (Brussow Harald) Alternatives to antibiotics Phage is a viable alternative to antibiotics. The collapse of antibiotics and emergence of harmful and drug resistant bacteria, phage therapy starts again and is being reintroduced. Phage therapy has many potential applications in human medicine, veterinary science and agriculture. Specificity – Phages are more specific than antibiotics, means one phage will only attack and eat one particular bacteria and no other. Each infection needs a particular phage to treat it. To improve the chances of success phage mixtures are applied or samples can be taken and an appropriate phage identified and grown. Phages can be chosen to be indirectly harmless not only to the host organism, but also to other beneficial bacteria, such as gut flora, thus reduce the chances of infections. Phage therapy give rise to few side effects. Phages replicates inside the patient, a smaller effective dose may not even be necessary. Currently phages are used therapeutically to treat bacterial infections that do not respond to conventional antibiotics particularly in Russia and Georgia. (Prof. Kieth) Need to study Phages As we saw research on phages and a lack of knowledge on phage biology affects on clinical failure. The emergence of antibiotics wiped out further research on medical use of phages. After many years, a new problem of bacterial resistance to use of antibiotic has arisen. Bacteria become resistant to drug used in modern medicine by adapting themselves. Problems created in treating patients in hospitals due to the emergence of modified pathogens such as S.aureus, P. aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Time required to produce new antibiotic is much larger than the time of bacterial adaptation. Therapeutic Uses of Phages and Antibiotics Conclusion For phage therapy multidrug resistant bacteria have opened a second window. (Carlton,1999) Phage therapy is the therapeutic use of lytic phages to treat bacterial infections. It is an alternative to antibiotics developed for clinical use. Phages are more specific than antibiotics that are in clinical use. This therapy is harmless to eukaryotic hosts undergoing therapy and should not affect normal beneficial flora of the host. Theoretically a single small dose is effective. Specificity is the disadvantage because specific phage will only kill a bacterium if it is a match to the specific subspecies. Thus, to improve the chances of success, phage mixture may be applied or clinical samples can be taken and suitable phage identified and grown. In the country of Georgia phages are used to treat bacterial infections therapeutically. (Todar Kenneth)